One of the first things I like to do after gaining some familiarity with a language is a couple of katas, maybe Blackjack, an API of some sort. All test driven of course. Thats what we'll do here.
What I find sorely missing in education is hierarchy of knowledge. Most resources give you every single bit of data related to a subject with equal stress. For example, with a written language a hierarchy of knowledge would be:
- alphabet
- words
- grammar
- structure
So, for a new language I first learn the alphabet (operators), words (reserved words), grammar (syntax), structure (files, modules, tests). The things usually used 80% of the time should be emphasized whereas edge cases would probably be an aside or in an appendix.
Rust is a system language, meaning it can be used for low level stuff such as Operating Systems, hardware and the like. That doesn't mean it is limited to those however.
Why Rust? What makes Rust great?:
- high level language with low level capabilities
- strongly typed
- no garbage collector, instead tracking it itself
- concurrency built in
- blazingly fast (because of the above)
Rust has a steep learning curve however.
Rust has an opinionated coding style:
- indentations are 4 spaces
- variable names are snake case
But, before the Rust fundamentals, lets talk about the build runner, documentation generator, test runner and package manager - Cargo.
Assuming you have installed Rust, go ahead and run this:
cargo new helloThis creates a folder:
└── hello
├── Cargo.toml
└── src
└── main.rsCargo.toml:
[package]
name = "hello"
version = "0.1.0"
authors = ["Your Name <[email protected]>"]
edition = "2018"
### See more keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html
[dependencies]And the rust file:
fn main() {
println!("Hello, world!");
}First things first, the Cargo.toml file. This is the configuration file for your software. This has all the information about your project, the name, authors, version (semver), project name (used when importing files) etc. It is also where other package dependencies are imported.
The rust file that is generated is a 'hello world' by default.
Now you can create an executable by running cargo build. Then execute by running cargo run (cargo run by itself builds and then runs).
After you run build you will see a 'target' folder is created. in the target folder is 'debug', so you probably want to add this to your .gitignore file.
The genesis of your project is the main function. This is what is executed when you run.
fn main() {}Functions are declared with a fn then name, parenthesis, then the body is in braces.
Integers are signed or unsigned: 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 (usize and isize). i32 or u32 etc.
You can use binary: 0b, octal: 0o, hex: 0x.
Floats are f32 and f64. This is valid: 0.1, this is not: .1.
Bool is bool, which are true and false.
A char is 4 bytes, a scalar, differing from a character within a string, which is utf-8 2 bytes.
Tuple stores multiple values, accessed by dot syntax (maximum of 12):
let a = (1, 2, 3);
println!("{}, {}, {}", a.0, a.1, a.2);Arrays are limited to 32 length. Vectors are preferred over Arrays.
To inspect an array use println!("{:?}", arr);.
Variables are immutable in Rust, however, you can mutate them by declaring using let mut. Rust is strongly typed, but if it can deduce what the variable is, it will automatically create that type for you.
let [mut] [variable-name][: type] = [value];Just so we can see something, Rust uses the format println! to write to the console, more on this later, but notice the exclamation mark before the parenthesis. Also, when you see a {} that means it will be replaced by the params you pass after the string.
let a = 34;
println!("Rust can deduce what type you want: {}", a);
let a:u32 = 34;
println!("Or, you could add the unsigned integer 32 bit `:u32` type {}", a);
let mut change = 34;
change += 1;
println!("This value is mutable, therefore changed {}", change);
let string = "Hello world!";
println!("{}", string);We'll come back to strings.
const always uses SCREAMING snake case, and you MUST specify type. Consts are really fast to access. You can use them 'globally' i.e. outside functions.
const UNCHANGING:u32 = 123;
println!("Const value is {}", UNCHANGING);You can destructure values and assign like this:
let (var1, var2) = (1, 2);Structs are types that you define. You can access the attributes of the data type using dot notation.
struct User {
name: String,
email: String,
age: i32
}
fn main() {
let bob = User{
name: "Bob".to_string(),
email: "[email protected]".to_string(),
age: 32
};
println!("Bob is: {}, {}, {}", bob.name, bob.email, bob.age);
}When you get compile errors, Rust gives you a handy explain command: rustc --explain E0384. Run that to get more information on the error. Pretty useful stuff.
Scope in Rust is block level. It does have access to parent scope (nested blocks). A block can be created with braces {}, as in:
fn main() {
{
let x = 1;
println!("{}", x);
}
}Variables can also be 'shadowed', so you can declare the same variable name multiple times.
fn [snake_case function name]([param :type]) -> [return type]
For example:
fn volume(x: i32, y: i32, z: i32) -> i32 {
return x * y * z;
}With the returned value, if you leave off the trailing semicolon of an expression, that value gets returned. (remember, an expression is anything that results in a value).
fn volume(x: i32, y: i32, z: i32) -> i32 {
x * y * z
}Note: you know the println!, see the exclamation mark? That is a 'macro'. A macro is a type of function (more later). You can use macros when you do not have a fixed arity.
Operators are just like C like languges, such as +, -, !, &&, ||, ==, %.
Rust does not have a ternery operator because of the way if/else logic works. Notice there is no semi-colon, meaning the expression is returned. For example:
let toggle = if toggle == 0 { 1 } else { 0 };Remember in TDD you start off with an if/else for one condition, then change it into a while/for etc. Look Mom, no brackets.
let n = 0;
if n == 0 {
println!("Oh");
} else {
println!("Uh oh");
}Infinite loop is:
print!("N");
loop {
print!("o");
}To escape, use break.
While:
let mut n = 0;
while n < 10 {
n += 1;
}For:
for x in 1..101 {
if x % 3 == 0 && x % 5 == 0 {
result = format!("{}{}\n", result, "FizzBuzz");
} else if x % 5 == 0 {
result = format!("{}{}\n", result, "Buzz");
} else if x % 3 == 0 {
result = format!("{}{}\n", result, "Fizz");
} else {
result = format!("{}{}\n", result, x.to_string());
}
}There are iterators too which we'll come to later.
The important files are: main.rs, lib.rs and mod.rs.
main.rs and lib.rs 'crate roots' - contents of either form a module named 'crate' at the root of the crate’s module structure (module tree). Basically a module can be a single file, or a file in a folder. If it is in a folder, you need
You can create module in two ways either a single file or a file within folder.
Terms are: crate, module, path, use, pub, as.
Like all good languages, testing is built in to Rust. Tests go in the file they are testing. The convention is to use a tests module in each file, annotating with cfg(test):
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn addition_works() {
assert_eq!(2 + 2, 4);
}
}Rust does not have a garbage collector.
To access args you can use std::env::args(). This gets them once the program is called:
let args: Vec<String> = std::env::args().skip(1).collect();
println!("{:?}", args);This loops over input:
use std::io;
use std::io::prelude::*;
fn main() {
let stdin = io::stdin();
for line in stdin.lock().lines() {
let input = line.unwrap();
println!("you entered {}", input);
}
}use std::{thread, time};
fn main() {
let one_second = time::Duration::from_millis(1000);
print!("Hello, world!");
thread::sleep(one_second);
print!("Hello, world!");
thread::sleep(one_second);
print!("Hello, world!");
}