diff --git a/openraft/src/docs/data/vote.md b/openraft/src/docs/data/vote.md
index 9463b5ba5..7b4e5bfb3 100644
--- a/openraft/src/docs/data/vote.md
+++ b/openraft/src/docs/data/vote.md
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ The only difference between these two modes is the definition of `LeaderId`, and
 See: [`leader-id`].
 
 
-## Vote defines the server state
+## Vote and Membership define the server state
 
 In the default mode, the `Vote` defines the server state(leader, candidate, follower or learner).
 A server state has a unique corresponding `vote`, thus `vote` can be used to identify different server
@@ -55,19 +55,29 @@ new membership log is replicated to a follower or learner.
 
 E.g.:
 
-- A vote `(term=1, node_id=2, committed=false)` is in a candidate state for
-  node-2.
+- Node-2 with vote `(term=1, node_id=2, committed=true)`:
+  - is a leader if it is **present** in config, either a voter or non-voter.
+  - is a learner if it is **absent** in config.
 
-- A vote `(term=1, node_id=2, committed=true)` is in a leader state for
-  node-2.
+- Node-2 with vote `(term=1, node_id=2, committed=false)`:
+  - is a candidate if it is **present** in config, either a voter or non-voter.
+  - is a learner if it is **absent** in config.
 
-- A vote `(term=1, node_id=2, committed=false|true)` is in a follower/learner
-  state for node-3.
+- Node-3 with vote `(term=1, node_id=99, committed=false|true)`:
+  - is a follower if it is a **voter** in config,
+  - is a learner if it is a **non-voter** or **absent** in config.
+
+For node-2:
+
+| vote \ membership                     | Voter     | Non-voter | Absent  |
+|---------------------------------------|-----------|-----------|---------|
+| (term=1, node_id=2, committed=true)   | leader    | leader    | learner |
+| (term=1, node_id=2, committed=false)  | candidate | candidate | learner |
+| (term=1, node_id=99, committed=true)  | follower  | learner   | learner |
+| (term=1, node_id=99, committed=false) | follower  | learner   | learner |
 
-- A vote `(term=1, node_id=1, committed=false|true)` is in another different
-  follower/learner state for node-3.
 
 
 [`Vote`]: `crate::vote::Vote`
 [`single-term-leader`]: `crate::docs::feature_flags`
-[`leader-id`]: `crate::docs::data::leader_id`
\ No newline at end of file
+[`leader-id`]: `crate::docs::data::leader_id`
diff --git a/openraft/src/engine/engine_impl.rs b/openraft/src/engine/engine_impl.rs
index fe0e1c26d..a347afd9b 100644
--- a/openraft/src/engine/engine_impl.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/engine/engine_impl.rs
@@ -95,7 +95,6 @@ where C: RaftTypeConfig
         }
     }
 
-    // TODO: test it
     #[tracing::instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     pub(crate) fn startup(&mut self) {
         // Allows starting up as a leader.
@@ -517,10 +516,7 @@ where C: RaftTypeConfig
 
         #[allow(clippy::collapsible_if)]
         if em.log_id().as_ref() <= self.state.committed() {
-            if !em.is_voter(&self.config.id) && self.state.is_leading(&self.config.id) {
-                tracing::debug!("leader {} is stepping down", self.config.id);
-                self.vote_handler().become_following();
-            }
+            self.vote_handler().update_internal_server_state();
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/append_entries_test.rs b/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/append_entries_test.rs
index 70a17b7c0..b8a23a663 100644
--- a/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/append_entries_test.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/append_entries_test.rs
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ fn m1_2() -> Membership<u64, ()> {
 }
 
 fn m23() -> Membership<u64, ()> {
-    Membership::<u64, ()>::new(vec![btreeset! {2,3}], None)
+    Membership::<u64, ()>::new(vec![btreeset! {2,3}], btreeset! {1,2,3})
 }
 
 fn eng() -> Engine<UTConfig> {
diff --git a/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/send_heartbeat_test.rs b/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/send_heartbeat_test.rs
index 6e347e2e1..ae67a51bd 100644
--- a/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/send_heartbeat_test.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/engine/handler/leader_handler/send_heartbeat_test.rs
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ fn m01() -> Membership<u64, ()> {
 }
 
 fn m23() -> Membership<u64, ()> {
-    Membership::<u64, ()>::new(vec![btreeset! {2,3}], None)
+    Membership::<u64, ()>::new(vec![btreeset! {2,3}], btreeset! {1,2,3})
 }
 
 fn eng() -> Engine<UTConfig> {
diff --git a/openraft/src/engine/handler/vote_handler/mod.rs b/openraft/src/engine/handler/vote_handler/mod.rs
index 8652548c9..c6b6bdd1b 100644
--- a/openraft/src/engine/handler/vote_handler/mod.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/engine/handler/vote_handler/mod.rs
@@ -124,7 +124,7 @@ where C: RaftTypeConfig
 
     /// Enter leading or following state by checking `vote`.
     pub(crate) fn update_internal_server_state(&mut self) {
-        if self.state.vote_ref().leader_id().voted_for() == Some(self.config.id) {
+        if self.state.is_leading(&self.config.id) {
             self.become_leading();
         } else {
             self.become_following();
diff --git a/openraft/src/engine/tests/startup_test.rs b/openraft/src/engine/tests/startup_test.rs
index 43279b714..e932e8c65 100644
--- a/openraft/src/engine/tests/startup_test.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/engine/tests/startup_test.rs
@@ -15,6 +15,10 @@ use crate::ServerState;
 use crate::TokioInstant;
 use crate::Vote;
 
+fn m_empty() -> Membership<u64, ()> {
+    Membership::<u64, ()>::new(vec![btreeset! {}], None)
+}
+
 fn m23() -> Membership<u64, ()> {
     Membership::<u64, ()>::new(vec![btreeset! {2,3}], None)
 }
@@ -63,6 +67,25 @@ fn test_startup_as_leader() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// When starting up, a leader that is not a voter should not panic.
+#[test]
+fn test_startup_as_leader_not_voter_issue_920() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let mut eng = eng();
+    // self.id==2 is a voter:
+    eng.state
+        .membership_state
+        .set_effective(Arc::new(EffectiveMembership::new(Some(log_id(2, 1, 3)), m_empty())));
+    // Committed vote makes it a leader at startup.
+    eng.state.vote = UTime::new(TokioInstant::now(), Vote::new_committed(1, 2));
+
+    eng.startup();
+
+    assert_eq!(ServerState::Learner, eng.state.server_state);
+    assert_eq!(eng.output.take_commands(), vec![]);
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 #[test]
 fn test_startup_candidate_becomes_follower() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
     let mut eng = eng();
diff --git a/openraft/src/membership/membership.rs b/openraft/src/membership/membership.rs
index 8ef107114..0af867d60 100644
--- a/openraft/src/membership/membership.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/membership/membership.rs
@@ -172,6 +172,11 @@ where
     N: Node,
     NID: NodeId,
 {
+    /// Return true if the given node id is an either voter or learner.
+    pub(crate) fn contains(&self, node_id: &NID) -> bool {
+        self.nodes.contains_key(node_id)
+    }
+
     /// Check if the given `NodeId` exists and is a voter.
     pub(crate) fn is_voter(&self, node_id: &NID) -> bool {
         for c in self.configs.iter() {
diff --git a/openraft/src/raft/message/client_write.rs b/openraft/src/raft/message/client_write.rs
index b063c8c89..4cdc708c1 100644
--- a/openraft/src/raft/message/client_write.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/raft/message/client_write.rs
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 use std::fmt::Debug;
 
-use crate::AppDataResponse;
 use crate::LogId;
 use crate::Membership;
 use crate::MessageSummary;
@@ -10,7 +9,7 @@ use crate::RaftTypeConfig;
 #[cfg_attr(
     feature = "serde",
     derive(serde::Deserialize, serde::Serialize),
-    serde(bound = "C::R: AppDataResponse")
+    serde(bound = "C::R: crate::AppDataResponse")
 )]
 pub struct ClientWriteResponse<C: RaftTypeConfig> {
     /// The id of the log that is applied.
diff --git a/openraft/src/raft_state/membership_state/mod.rs b/openraft/src/raft_state/membership_state/mod.rs
index fdeddd3a1..7ce53c811 100644
--- a/openraft/src/raft_state/membership_state/mod.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/raft_state/membership_state/mod.rs
@@ -77,6 +77,12 @@ where
         Self { committed, effective }
     }
 
+    /// Return true if the given node id is an either voter or learner.
+    pub(crate) fn contains(&self, id: &NID) -> bool {
+        self.effective.membership().contains(id)
+    }
+
+    /// Check if the given `NodeId` exists and is a voter.
     pub(crate) fn is_voter(&self, id: &NID) -> bool {
         self.effective.membership().is_voter(id)
     }
diff --git a/openraft/src/raft_state/mod.rs b/openraft/src/raft_state/mod.rs
index a37675b9d..8a8d6fdd0 100644
--- a/openraft/src/raft_state/mod.rs
+++ b/openraft/src/raft_state/mod.rs
@@ -319,24 +319,34 @@ where
     }
 
     /// Determine the current server state by state.
+    ///
+    /// See [Determine Server State][] for more details about determining the server state.
+    ///
+    /// [Determine Server State]: crate::docs::data::vote#vote-and-membership-define-the-server-state
     #[tracing::instrument(level = "debug", skip_all)]
     pub(crate) fn calc_server_state(&self, id: &NID) -> ServerState {
         tracing::debug!(
-            is_member = display(self.is_voter(id)),
+            contains = display(self.membership_state.contains(id)),
+            is_voter = display(self.is_voter(id)),
             is_leader = display(self.is_leader(id)),
             is_leading = display(self.is_leading(id)),
             "states"
         );
-        if self.is_voter(id) {
-            if self.is_leader(id) {
-                ServerState::Leader
-            } else if self.is_leading(id) {
-                ServerState::Candidate
-            } else {
+
+        // Openraft does not require Leader/Candidate to be a voter, i.e., a learner node could
+        // also be possible to be a leader. Although currently it is not supported.
+        // Allowing this will simplify leader step down: The leader just run as long as it wants to,
+        #[allow(clippy::collapsible_else_if)]
+        if self.is_leader(id) {
+            ServerState::Leader
+        } else if self.is_leading(id) {
+            ServerState::Candidate
+        } else {
+            if self.is_voter(id) {
                 ServerState::Follower
+            } else {
+                ServerState::Learner
             }
-        } else {
-            ServerState::Learner
         }
     }
 
@@ -346,12 +356,25 @@ where
 
     /// The node is candidate(leadership is not granted by a quorum) or leader(leadership is granted
     /// by a quorum)
+    ///
+    /// Note that in Openraft Leader does not have to be a voter. See [Determine Server State][] for
+    /// more details about determining the server state.
+    ///
+    /// [Determine Server State]: crate::docs::data::vote#vote-and-membership-define-the-server-state
     pub(crate) fn is_leading(&self, id: &NID) -> bool {
-        self.vote.leader_id().voted_for().as_ref() == Some(id)
+        self.membership_state.contains(id) && self.vote.leader_id().voted_for().as_ref() == Some(id)
     }
 
+    /// The node is leader
+    ///
+    /// Leadership is granted by a quorum and the vote is committed.
+    ///
+    /// Note that in Openraft Leader does not have to be a voter. See [Determine Server State][] for
+    /// more details about determining the server state.
+    ///
+    /// [Determine Server State]: crate::docs::data::vote#vote-and-membership-define-the-server-state
     pub(crate) fn is_leader(&self, id: &NID) -> bool {
-        self.vote.leader_id().voted_for().as_ref() == Some(id) && self.vote.is_committed()
+        self.is_leading(id) && self.vote.is_committed()
     }
 
     pub(crate) fn assign_log_ids<'a, Ent: RaftEntry<NID, N> + 'a>(
diff --git a/tests/tests/life_cycle/main.rs b/tests/tests/life_cycle/main.rs
index 61556ecda..f1ae5b7a5 100644
--- a/tests/tests/life_cycle/main.rs
+++ b/tests/tests/life_cycle/main.rs
@@ -13,3 +13,4 @@ mod t50_follower_restart_does_not_interrupt;
 mod t50_single_follower_restart;
 mod t50_single_leader_restart_re_apply_logs;
 mod t90_issue_607_single_restart;
+mod t90_issue_920_non_voter_leader_restart;
diff --git a/tests/tests/life_cycle/t90_issue_920_non_voter_leader_restart.rs b/tests/tests/life_cycle/t90_issue_920_non_voter_leader_restart.rs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..a781f50b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/tests/life_cycle/t90_issue_920_non_voter_leader_restart.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+use std::sync::Arc;
+use std::time::Duration;
+
+use openraft::storage::RaftLogStorage;
+use openraft::Config;
+use openraft::ServerState;
+use openraft::Vote;
+
+use crate::fixtures::init_default_ut_tracing;
+use crate::fixtures::RaftRouter;
+
+/// Special case: A leader that is not a member(neither a voter or non-voter) should be started too,
+/// as a learner.
+#[async_entry::test(worker_threads = 8, init = "init_default_ut_tracing()", tracing_span = "debug")]
+async fn issue_920_non_member_leader_restart() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
+    let config = Arc::new(
+        Config {
+            enable_heartbeat: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .validate()?,
+    );
+
+    let mut router = RaftRouter::new(config.clone());
+
+    let (mut log_store, sm) = router.new_store();
+    // Set committed vote that believes node 0 is the leader.
+    log_store.save_vote(&Vote::new_committed(1, 0)).await?;
+    router.new_raft_node_with_sto(0, log_store, sm).await;
+
+    router
+        .wait(&0, timeout())
+        .state(ServerState::Learner, "node 0 becomes learner when startup")
+        .await?;
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn timeout() -> Option<Duration> {
+    Some(Duration::from_millis(1000))
+}
diff --git a/tests/tests/membership/t11_add_learner.rs b/tests/tests/membership/t11_add_learner.rs
index db3d66f2e..d193bef62 100644
--- a/tests/tests/membership/t11_add_learner.rs
+++ b/tests/tests/membership/t11_add_learner.rs
@@ -132,12 +132,27 @@ async fn add_learner_non_blocking() -> Result<()> {
         let raft = router.get_raft_handle(&0)?;
         raft.add_learner(1, (), false).await?;
 
-        sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await;
-
-        let metrics = router.get_raft_handle(&0)?.metrics().borrow().clone();
-        let repl = metrics.replication.as_ref().unwrap();
-        let n1_repl = repl.get(&1);
-        assert_eq!(Some(&None), n1_repl, "no replication state to the learner is reported");
+        let n = 6;
+        for i in 0..=n {
+            if i == n {
+                unreachable!("no replication status is reported to metrics!");
+            }
+
+            let metrics = router.get_raft_handle(&0)?.metrics().borrow().clone();
+            let repl = metrics.replication.as_ref().unwrap();
+
+            // The result is Some(&None) when there is no success replication is made,
+            // and is None if no replication attempt is made(no success or failure is reported to metrics).
+            let n1_repl = repl.get(&1);
+            if n1_repl.is_none() {
+                tracing::info!("--- no replication attempt is made, sleep and retry: {}-th attempt", i);
+
+                sleep(Duration::from_millis(500)).await;
+                continue;
+            }
+            assert_eq!(Some(&None), n1_repl, "no replication state to the learner is reported");
+            break;
+        }
     }
 
     Ok(())
diff --git a/tests/tests/membership/t31_remove_leader.rs b/tests/tests/membership/t31_remove_leader.rs
index 7ae52c088..123cc76d9 100644
--- a/tests/tests/membership/t31_remove_leader.rs
+++ b/tests/tests/membership/t31_remove_leader.rs
@@ -94,10 +94,9 @@ async fn remove_leader() -> Result<()> {
 
     tracing::info!(log_index, "--- check state of the old leader");
     {
-        let metrics = router.get_metrics(&0)?;
+        let metrics = router.wait(&0, timeout()).state(ServerState::Learner, "old leader steps down").await?;
         let cfg = &metrics.membership_config.membership();
 
-        assert!(metrics.state != ServerState::Leader);
         assert_eq!(metrics.current_term, 1);
         assert_eq!(metrics.last_log_index, Some(8));
         assert_eq!(metrics.last_applied, Some(LogId::new(CommittedLeaderId::new(1, 0), 8)));
@@ -110,6 +109,69 @@ async fn remove_leader() -> Result<()> {
     Ok(())
 }
 
+/// Change membership from {0,1} to {1,2,3}, keep node-0 as learner;
+///
+/// - The leader should NOT step down after joint log is committed.
+#[async_entry::test(worker_threads = 8, init = "init_default_ut_tracing()", tracing_span = "debug")]
+async fn remove_leader_and_convert_to_learner() -> Result<()> {
+    let config = Arc::new(
+        Config {
+            election_timeout_min: 800,
+            election_timeout_max: 1000,
+            enable_elect: false,
+            enable_heartbeat: false,
+            ..Default::default()
+        }
+        .validate()?,
+    );
+    let mut router = RaftRouter::new(config.clone());
+
+    let mut log_index = router.new_cluster(btreeset! {0,1}, btreeset! {2,3}).await?;
+
+    let old_leader = 0;
+
+    tracing::info!(log_index, "--- change membership and retain removed node as learner");
+    {
+        let node = router.get_raft_handle(&old_leader)?;
+        node.change_membership(btreeset![1, 2, 3], true).await?;
+        log_index += 2;
+    }
+
+    tracing::info!(log_index, "--- old leader commits 2 membership log");
+    {
+        router
+            .wait(&old_leader, timeout())
+            .log(Some(log_index), "old leader commits 2 membership log")
+            .await?;
+    }
+
+    // Another node(e.g. node-1) in the old cluster may not commit the second membership change log.
+    // Because to commit the 2nd log it only need a quorum of the new cluster.
+
+    router
+        .wait(&1, timeout())
+        .log_at_least(
+            Some(log_index - 1),
+            "node in old cluster commits at least 1 membership log",
+        )
+        .await?;
+
+    tracing::info!(log_index, "--- wait 1 sec, old leader(non-voter) stays as a leader");
+    {
+        tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(1_000)).await;
+
+        router
+            .wait(&0, timeout())
+            .state(
+                ServerState::Leader,
+                "old leader is not removed from membership, it is still a leader",
+            )
+            .await?;
+    }
+
+    Ok(())
+}
+
 /// Change membership from {0,1,2} to {2}. Access {2} at once.
 ///
 /// It should not respond a ForwardToLeader error that pointing to the removed leader.