- Over time, conditions can become problems.
- Social Construction: the process by which people define reality, influenced by the political context and the actions of political actors.
- Social Construction of Problems: the process of defining problems and "selling" a broad population on the definition.
- Symbols: words, phrases, or images that evoke a particular meaning or set of meanings.
- Numbers: statistics, data, and other numerical information that can be used to define a problem.
- Stories: narratives that can be used to define a problem.
- Conspiracy theories and horror stories usually lack evidence but are very powerful.
- Causal stories: explain the causes of a problem.
- Pluralism:
- Many groups compete in a relatively open political system.
- Policy is the outcome of this competition.
- Elitism:
- Policymaking is dominated by the most educated, wealthiest, and most powerful groups.
- Policy is the outcome of the competition between these groups.
The agenda is the list of things being discussed and sometimes acted upon by a political body, the news media, or the public at large.
- An underlying ideological plan.
- A collection of public problems that come to the attention of members of the public and their governmental officials. These include the related:
- causes
- symbols
- solutions
- and other matters that are the focus of attention.
- A concrete list of bills before a legislature.
- A series of beliefs out the existence and magnitude of problems and how they should be addressed by the government, the private sector, nonprofit organizations, or through joint action by some or all of these actors.
- Hidden agendas, which reflect the American value of distrusting government and the belief that government officials and other actors are not always honest about their true intentions.
- Overt agendas, which are the stated goals of government officials and other actors.
Agendas exist all levels of government: every community and government has a collection of issues that are available for discussion and action.
Agenda setting is the process by which problems and alternative solutions gain or lose public and elite attention.
The activities of various actors and groups that cause issues to gain or lose attention*_ are called agenda-setting.
- There are too many possible problems and possible solutions that no one society or government can address.
- The competition for attention is fierce.
- Substantial competition for a very limited agenda space.
- difficulty,
- competition among groups vying for their preferred solutions, and
- possible controversy and conflict.
- Agenda Universe: the collection of all possible issues.
- Systemic agenda: the collection of issues perceived by the public, media, and government members as meriting public attention and governmental action.
- Institutional agenda: the collection of issues that are up for active and serious consideration by a governmental body.
- Decision agenda: the collection of issues that are actually acted upon by a governmental body.
- These levels exist in multiple phase spaces.
- We can think of multiple levels of the agenda for each of the following:
- The public
- The media
- The government
- The courts
- The bureaucracy
- The President
- The Congress
- The Supreme Court
- The states
- The local governments
- Each of these levels has its own agenda universe, systemic, institutional, and decision agendas.
- Any possible idea that could every be considered by a government or society, at any time and in any place, is part of the agenda universe.
The systemic agenda is the collection of issues perceived by the public, media, and government members as meriting public attention and governmental action.
- Any issue, problem, or idea that could possibly considered by participants in each political system as long as it doesn't fall outside well-established norms and values.
The boundary between the systemic agenda and the agenda universe is the gatekeeping function of the media, government, and other actors.
- This boundary is not static. From time to time, the boundaries can change regarding what is or is not considered acceptable for government action.
The institutional agenda is the collection of issues that are up for active and serious consideration by a governmental body.
- These are the issues that are receiving serious attention from the government and the public.
- The institutional agenda is a subset of the systemic agenda.
- Limited attention and resources mean that only a small number of issues can be considered at any one time.
- In legislative bodies, the committee structure helps to expand the carrying capacity of the agenda—the division of labor effect.
The decision agenda is the collection of issues that are actually acted upon by a governmental body.
- The decision agenda is a subset of the institutional agenda.
- These are items that are up for a vote or a decision by a governmental body.
Conflict Expansion is the key goal of many interest groups, and it can move items from the systemic agenda to the institutional agenda or from the institutional agenda to the decision agenda and vice versa.
- Conflict is greatest at the discision agenda level.
- A decision reached at one level or branch of government may trigger or expand the conflict at another level or branch of government.
- Attention sets the policy agenda
- Priorities often determine where attention is placed.
- Major events often shift priorities and attention allocation.
- We live in a world of imperfect and costly information. Those who can persuade and use their power to get attention can shape the agenda.
- Attention bottlenecks occur when there is too much information, forcing us to focus on some things while ignoring others.
- When the numbers or statistics look bad, the problem is more likely to get attention.
- e.g., unemployment, inflation, crime, etc.
- These indicators become symbols of the problem.
- A major event that draws attention to a problem.
- Attention can spike in the agenda space when a major event occurs, forcing policymakers, the media, and the public to focus on the issue.
- e.g., 9/11, the Challenger explosion, the BP oil spill, etc.
- Some groups take advantage of these events to push their own agendas.
Losing Groups are those who are unable to get their issues on the agenda or to get their preferred solutions adopted.
- They have two ways to expand the scope of the conflict:
- Use symbols to change the nature of the policy debate, induce sympathy, and gain support.
- Appeal to a higher level or another branch of government.
Winning Groups are those that can get their issues on the agenda and adopt their preferred solutions.
- They have a policy monopoly over an issue.
- They reinforce their own symbols and narratives.
- They use their power to keep other groups off the agenda.
- They keep public attention directed away from their policy preferences.
- Coercive Power
- Blocking Power
- Quiescence or Powerlessness
- e.g., the police, the military, etc.
- Coercive power is the most obvious form of power, but it is not the most common form of power in a democracy.
- Easy to use in a totalitarian regime, but not in a democracy.
- e.g., the filibuster, the veto, etc.
- Blocking power is the most common form of power in a democracy.
- It is the power to
- say "no" to someone else's agenda.
- keep an issue off the agenda.
- keep an issue from being decided.
- keep an issue from being implemented.
- Some issues are allowed to come to the fore while others are deemed unworthy of consideration.
- Even with an even playing field, there are vastly more powerful teams.
Quiescence or Powerlessness is the inability to get one's issues on the agenda or to get one's preferred solutions adopted.
- e.g., the poor, the homeless, etc.
- Quiescence is the most common form of powerlessness in a democracy.
- People attempt but fail to influence the policy process, so they give up.
- Has lasting generational effects.
- Problem Stream: the collection of problems that the public and policymakers perceive as meriting public attention and governmental action.
- Policy Stream: the collection of policy proposals that the public and policymakers perceive as meriting public attention and governmental action.
- Politics Stream: the collection of political factors that the public and policymakers perceive as meriting public attention and governmental action.
These "streams" come together at an opportune moment when attention is high or negative, creating a window of opportunity for policy change.
- Window of Opportunity: the convergence of the problem stream, the policy stream, and the politics stream.
- Policy Entrepreneurs: individuals who are able to take advantage of the window of opportunity to push their preferred solutions.
- Advocacy Coalition: a collection of individuals and groups who share a common set of policy beliefs and who seek to influence policymakers.
- Because of elites and policy monopolies, groups often come together to advance policy preferences (i.e., strength in numbers)
- Policy Beliefs: the fundamental beliefs that define the policy preferences of an advocacy coalition.
- Policy Core Beliefs are often based on deeply held values and beliefs.
- Problems are socially constructed.
- Groups compete to define problems and solutions.
- The agenda is the list of things being discussed and sometimes acted upon by a political body, the news media, or the public at large.
- Agenda setting is the process by which problems and alternative solutions gain or lose public and elite attention.
- Political power is the ability to get things done in a political system.
- There are three types of political power: coercive power, blocking power, and quiescence or powerlessness.
- We discussed two models for inducing policy change: Kingdon's three streams and the window of opportunity model and Sabatier's advocacy coalition framework.